Fragrance Terms

Aldehydes-Aldehydic

An aldehyde is an organic hydrocarbon chemical containing a terminal carbonyl functional group (-CH=O), consisting of a carbon, a hydrogen, and an oxygen atom. It is a highly reactive compound created by partial oxidation of a primary alcohol and is easily converted to a corresponding acid.


Aldehydes can be derived from natural or synthetic materials. They are present in many natural substances, such as orange rind, rose petals, and cinnamon bark. The general name was coined by the German chemist Justus von Liebig as a contraction of the Latin alcohol dehydrogenatus, meaning 'alcohol without hydrogen.' The aldehyde group is sometimes called a formyl or methanoyl group. Other groups of organic compounds containing carbonyl groups include ketones and carboxylic acids.


In perfumery, the term aldehyde indicates a molecule containing a shorter (C6-C12) straight-chained (aliphatic) aldehyde. The scent of the aldehyde depends upon the alcohol from which it is produced. In perfume classification, aldehydes are often called the 'modern' group. The shortest (C1-C5), lower-weight aldehydes smell bad, most like rotten fruits, and are not used in scents. There are different types of scents associated with the carbonyl function, but the most common ones to which the term 'aldehydic' refers range from a somewhat sharp, crisp, and metallic character to slightly starchy, fatty, or creamy tone.


The overall scent in perfumes is often described as having hints of flowers and/or citrus, or like freshly washed linens, with a tone that is both rich and light. They frequently are divided into a 'fatty' group, with powerful but pleasant smells that become citrusy with dilution, and a 'waxy' group that has more floral odors which become sweeter upon dilution, although some aldehydes have both properties. Green floral aldehydes give perfumes sharper, 'outdoor' notes, while woody floral aldehydes add tones of cedar, patchouli, or oak. Aldehydes have a distinctive waxy, 'soapy' smell similar to that of a blown-out candle. (The smell of candles actually is provided by the aldehydes, which are products of incomplete combustion of paraffin.) The aroma is quite strong and intense, becoming pleasant only when diluted down to 1% or less.



Generally, an 'aldehydic' fragrance is one to which aldehydes have been added for their sparkling brilliance, vibrancy, and strong, incisive effect, usually with an exciting top note. They are said to 'move' when you smell them, not staying static. Aldehydes 'adapt' to the natural skin scent, enhancing other notes in a composition, and are used as modifiers as well as for their scent alone. Aldehydes have been used heavily in perfumery for a long time because of their low price, their intensity, and their ability to mask unpleasant tones of soap bases.

Aldehydes were first used in the 1905 edition of L.T. Piver's Rêve D'Or, by perfumer Louis Armingeat, then in Houbigant Quelques Fleurs in 1912 and Alphonse Rallet Bouquet de Catherine in 1913. One of the first 'aldehydic' fragrances using the chemical in a higher amount was the famous Chanel No. 5 launched in 1921, which had an unprecedented concentration of almost 1% aldehydes, primarily C10, C11, and C12. Coco Chanel's intention was to create a perfume that smelled like woman rather than like flowers, saying, "Women do not want to smell of a bed of rose." (It is said that Chanel's perfumer, Ernest Beaux, mistakenly added much more aldehyde than she had requested, but she loved the result and kept it.) No. 5 became so popular that many subsequent 'aldehydic fragrances' used the same combination. Although there is hardly a single fragrance now without some type of aldehyde in it, more recent ones usually do not contain aldehydes in large concentrations because that is perceived to be old-fashioned. Many people now prefer a closer-to-the-skin scent, more subtle and more politically correct.



The aldehydes most commonly used in perfumery and their scents:

C7 (heptanal) - sharp, herbal, green, grassy, slightly fruity, reminiscent of fresh outdoor breezes
C8 (octanal) - citrus, suggesting oranges, lemons, and orange peel
C9 (nonanal) - rose, with hints of rosewood, jasmine, and orange
C10 (decanal) - orange rind zest
C10 citral - citrus, especially lemon
C11 (undecanal) - bitter coriander, fresh, 'clean'
C12 (lauric dodecanal) - lilac, violet, with a touch of conifer
C13 (tridecanal) - grapefruit and grapefruit peel, waxy, soapy, slightly floral
C14 (gamma undecalactone) - peach


Other aldehyde variants that are used:

strawberry glycidate - sweet strawberry, floral, honey
gamma nonalactone - sweet, creamy, buttery, hints of coconut
amylcinnamic aldehyde - jasmine
anisaldehyde - anise and a hint of hawthorn
benzaldehyde - almond
cinnamaldehyde - cinnamon
cuminic aldehyde - cumin
cyclamen aldehyde - cyclamen
furfural - almond
heliotropin - floral, similar to vanillin or cherry
hexanal (C6) - green and apple notes
hexylcinnamic aldehyde - jasmine
lilial - lily-of-the-valley, linden
mandarine aldehyde - mandarin orange, coriander
melonal (melon aldehyde) - melon, green, cucumber
Mircenal (citrus carbaldehyde) - floral, citrus, ozone
muscone - musk
phenylacetaldehyde - green narcissus, hyacinth
propanal (propionaldehyde) - sweet, fruity
triplal - green grass
vanillin (4-hydroxy-3-methoxy-banzaldehyde) - sweet, creamy vanilla

Aldehydes have been used in many versions of soaps and detergents to give them a 'fresh lemon scent,' especially Lux soaps. Aldehydes also are used for the manufacture of synthetic resins (e.g. bakelite), as well as dyes, flavorings, medications, and other chemicals. Some are used as preservatives and disinfenctants. Some critics complain that aldehydes can be toxic even in perfume concentrations, although research about this is contradictory.



Masculine fragrances with prominent aldehydes:

Adidas Active Bodies, Team Force
Adolfo Dominguez Agua Fresca Extreme
Alfred Sung
Amordad Beaumont White Gold
Aramis Anniversary Edition, Devin, Havana, Ice, JHL, New West
Azzaro Chrome Sport, Decibel
Baldessarini Cool Force Sport
Bvlgari
Calvin Klein CK One Red, Eternity
Cartier Must pour Homme
Chanel Allure Sport
Christian Dior Eau Sauvage, Fahrenheit 32
Coty Stetson Siera
Dana Wind Drift
Davidoff Echo
Daniel Hechter Caractere
Estee Lauder Intuition
Faberge Brut Identity
Faberlic Cruiser Turbo, Incognito
Farina Russisch Leder
Floris 1927
Gianfranco Ferre Lui
Giorgio Beverly Hills Giorgio, VIP
Givenchy Insense
Guerlain Heritage, Vetiver
Guy Laroche Horizon
Helena Rubinstein Men's Club
Hermes Equipage
Hugo Boss Cashmere Patchouli, Elements, Spirit
Jacques Bogart Force Majeure, Witness
Jean Paul Gaultier Le Male Airlines, Le Male Andre, Le Male Popeye, Le Male Superman
John Varvatos Dark Rebel Rider, Rock Volume One
Kanebo Eroica, Gilvan, HF, Hinotori, Valcan
Karl Lagerfeld Classic, Photo
Liz Claiborne Curve Chill
Maurer & Wirtz Tabac (Original)
Nautica
Nina Ricci Phileas
Oleg Cassini Reporter
Oscar de la Renta Oscaar pour Lui
Pal Zileri Lab i-White
Paloma Picasso Minotaure
Ralph Lauren Polo Black, Polo Sport, Safari
Rasasi Shaghaf
Rochas Eau de Rochas
Roja Madison
Royal Copenhagen
Salvador Dali Salvador
Valentino Vendetta
Versace Green Jeans
Weil
X-Bond Lion Gold
Yves St. Laurent Kouros, l'Homme Libre, l'Homme Sport, Rive Gauche, Y

Lavender

Lavender (Lavandula genus) includes around 40 known species of evergreen, perennial, shrub-like flowering plants in the mint family, Lamiaceae. Thought to have originated in the highlands of India, it is native to mountainous zones of Europe and also grows in the United States, Cape Verde and the Canary Islands, across northern and eastern Africa, the Mediterranean, and southwest Asia. Growing to a height of a meter, it has woody branches covered with diversely shaped, narrow, grey-green leaves and small flowers. The flowers are displayed in whorls and held on spikes that rise above the foliage. The flowers generally are blue, violet, or lilac in color in wild species, and occasionally black-purple, pink, white, or yellow. Commercially grown 'true lavender' (L. angustifolia) flowers have a unique pale purple tone that is the source of the lavender color name. Lavender is mainly grown commercially in Bulgaria and France (especially in Haute-Provence, Drôme, and Vaucluse regions) and Italy. China, India, and Russia also grow it, with England, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and the U.S. being minor growers. Since the plant cross-pollinates easily, there are over 400 wild variations and numerous commercial hybrids and cultivars. Because cultivated forms are planted worldwide, they are sometimes found growing wild as garden escapees, well beyond their natural ranges, and can be invasive. For example, in Australia, L. stoechas has spread widely and has been declared a noxious weed since 1920; it is also regarded as a weed in parts of Spain.


The names widely used for some species, including 'English lavender,' 'French lavender,' and 'Spanish lavender,' are applied imprecisely. 'English lavender' or 'Old English lavender' is most commonly used for L. angustifolia. 'French lavender' may refer to L. angustifolia, L. stoechas, or L. dentata (although the major lavender crop in France is L. angustifolia); 'Spanish lavender' generally refers to L. stoechas, L. lanata, or L. dentata; and 'Egyptian lavender' usually means L. multifida. Also used is the term 'Dutch lavender,' referring to a class of hybrids called lavandins.


The English word lavender probably comes from Old French lavendre, itself derived from Latin lavare, meaning 'to wash.' Its original name most likely refers to the ancient Roman tradition of using lavender-infused water for bathing. Another possible interpretation stems from the earliest known English name for it, livendula, derived directly from the Latin name for a bluish color.


Lavender was used at least 2500 years ago by the ancient Egyptians, who are believed to have been first to extract the oil for perfumes, incense, and mummification. The Bible refers to lavender as 'spikenard.' The Greeks and Romans used the flowers or oil for cooking, to freshen the air, to scent bath water and clothing, and in sachets when traveling. The Greeks also ingested it to treat insomnia and back aches. In Spain it was listed as an ingredient for making a spiced wine called hippocras. It was used in Medieval times to scent linen and was strewn on the floors of churches and homes to release pleasant a smell when crushed under foot. At that time, women who took in washing for pay were called 'lavenders.' They frequently washed the clothing in lavender water and laid it out to dry on lavender bushes. King Charles VI of France insisted that his pillow always contained lavender so that he could sleep well.


Lavender was introduced into England early in the 17th century, when it initially was used to scent drawers and to stuff quilted jackets and caps. At that time, women wore small lavender pouches in their cleavage to lure suitors, and men used it to flavor snuff. At this time it became a cure-all mentioned in the writings of many English herbalists. It was also used as protection against the Black Plague of 1665 (sometimes worn on the wrists or hung above doors for protection), because it had been noted in the previous century that French glove makers, who were licensed to perfume their products with lavender, generally escaped cholera infection. Plague doctors, hired to treat victims of the pandemic, stuffed lavender into their face masks. This use against the Plague may have had some validity, since the infection was transmitted by fleas, which lavender repels.


It is said that Queen Elizabeth had fresh lavender in vases on her table every day, that she drank lavender tea for migraines, and that she prized lavender conserve (jam); and lavender became popular with the public for use in jams and other foods, as well as being used in teas both medicinally and for its taste. Queen Victoria used a lavender deodorant, and Victorians grew the plant in their gardens. Gypsy travelers of that time sold bunches of lavender on the streets of London to bring people good luck. Fresh lavender was dried and put into muslin bags for wardrobes and used to wash walls and furniture, and lavender bags were stuffed between sheets in linen presses. Lavender was used to repel inspects, to treat lice, as a perfume and a potpourri, in furniture polish and soap, and as a cure-all in household medicine cupboards.

The Shakers, a sect of Quakers, are credited with commercializing lavender in North America and introducing a variety of lavender-based products to the United States and Canada. The Shakers produced lavender medicines, jams, and scented products, and sold them to neighbors and customers outside their religious sect.

Lavender essential oil is obtained by steam distillation of cut flower spikes. The highest quality oil is produced in France, where L. angustifolia grows naturally at altitudes of 600-1500m. Lavender is harvested primarily between late June and September, when flowering has ended and the flower color has become more pale and grey. Harvesting is done either in bulk or by bunches, starting in the morning before the day becomes too hot, usually by hand for perfumery use. The fresh flowers are dried for a short time in sheds and then put into a large-volume vessel. Once filled and packed, the vessel is closed with an air-tight cover. Steam is passed through the contents, vaporizing the essential oil. The steam and oil droplets pass through a serpentine pipe into cold water and are decanted. The oil, less dense than water, floats and is skimmed off.


Distillation is primarily done in small local factories and yields a total of around 100 tons of pure oil each year. In its pure form, lavender oil is colorless to pale yellow and is insoluble in water. Early in the 20th century, most lavender essential oil was produced only in the Grasse region of France. Leading modern producers of lavender oil now are France, Bulgaria, and China. In recent years, around 60% of lavender essential oil has gone to perfumery.


There are four types of lavender essential oil:
True lavender (from L. angustifolia or officinalis), French lavender, used in high-quality perfumes
Maritime lavender (from L. stoechas), more camphorous, used in less expensive fragrances
Lavender aspic (from L. latifolia), also called 'spike oil' and used for toiletries and household products
Lavandin oil (from L. intermedia or lavendula x intermedia), used mainly for inexpensive perfumes and toiletries

When reduced to an absolute (by extraction of the flower buds with a hydrocarbon solvent, followed by ethanol, then cold-filtering and evaporation), lavender is brown to green and slightly viscous and has a more tenacious, distinctive herbal-hay smell reminiscent of natural flowering lavender. The absolute is sweeter but less floral than the essential oil and has a coumarin-like richness. For retail sale, the absolute is usually diluted to 10% in ethanol to make it more affordable and easier to pipette. It is sometimes used in combination with the essential oil in perfumes to provide more complexity. In the past, lavender absolute was produced primarily through enfleurage of the flowers and stems.

Over 100 individual aromatic chemicals have been extracted from lavender oil, the major ones being linalyl acetate (30-55%), linalool (20-35%), tannins (5-10%), and caryophyllene (8%). The relative amounts of these compounds vary considerably among lavender species.


Lavender is one of the most popular essential oils in perfumery and many other industries, especially in the United States. In perfumery, a number of different regional varieties are used. A single variety can produce a range of different aromatic notes depending on the growing region, the altitude at which it was grown, and the distilling techniques. Some lavender oils have a very sweet aroma, while others are distinctively sharp. French lavender (L. angustifolia), for example, smells quite sweet, but Dutch lavender (L. intermedia) has higher levels of camphor and other terpenes and displays a very strong and sharp overtone. In general, lavender's odor profile has a clean floral note, with green, fresh, fruity, spicy, slightly herbaceous-woody, and licorice facets.

Lavender mixes well with almost any floral, herbal, or spicy note. The oil is used mainly in fresh, sweet, and floral fragrances, especially as a top note in fougères. (Lavender was a key note in original Houbigant Fougère Royale (1882), considered the first modern perfume.) The sweeter absolute is often used to offer a sugary, herbaceous, woody tone to a composition. Like the oil, it blends especially well with citruses (especially bergamot, neroli, and orange blossom), rose, geranium, oakmoss, patchouli, peppermint, cinnamon, pines, cedarwood, coumarin, cloves, rosemary, chamomile, basil, and sage. Lavender also mixes well with vanilla, amber, and musk.

Lavender is commonly used in production of colognes for men (with around 90% of masculine compositions now containing it) and lends a heart note to many fragrances, especially vintage creations (e.g. Creed Royal Scottish Lavender and Atkinsons English Lavender in 1910), and a dry and balmy base to more modern ones (such as Hugo Boss Bottled Night). More recently, however, lavender has been used increasingly in compositions for women (and marketed for 'strong, bold, and free women who experiment with their freedom'). Lavender is considered an all-season fragrance, its versatility making it appropriate for either cold or warm weather.


Says perfumer Julie Massé, 'Lavender adds an herby note – but interestingly, by adding it to other fragrance notes you can push it towards 'cool' herby, towards the smell of mint, or you can go in the other direction and push it towards 'hot' herby, almost spicy, like the scent of a hot summer's night.' And perfumer Richard Ibanez adds, 'Lavender adds touches somewhere between reason and heart, and sharp and clear. It brings comfort and freshness and is, in the end, very reassuring.'

Many members of the lavandula genus are cultivated in temperate climates as ornamental plants for garden and landscape use and as culinary herbs. Lavender flower spikes are used for dried flower arrangements, and the flowers and buds are included in potpourris and sachet fillings. Dried and sealed in pouches, the flowers can be placed among stored clothing items to deter moths. Before the use of distilled turpentine became common, lavender oil was used as a solvent for oil painting. In toiletries, what is called 'lavender' sometimes is actually an artificial construct of vanilla, musk, and licorice notes. True lavender, however, is used in bath soaps, cleaning products, room deodorizers, candles, and food products.

The plant has culinary uses, adding a floral-sweet flavor to dishes. Culinary lavender is usually an English lavender species (L. angustifolia 'Munstead'). It has a sweet scent with citrus notes and is used as a spice in pastas, savory stews, salads and dressings, and desserts (especially chocolate ones). It is a common ingredient in the combination called Herbes de Provence. The buds and greens are used in black, green, or herbal teas. Lavender syrup and dried lavender buds are used to make lavender scone and marshmallows, and lavender nectar (from buds processed by bees) is employed to make monofloral honey. Lavender also can be used in breads where recipes call for rosemary. The potency of lavender flowers increases with drying, which necessitates sparing use to avoid a heavy, soapy aftertaste. Lavender buds are sometimes put into sugar for around two weeks to allow the fragrance to transfer, and then the 'lavender sugar' is used in baking. Lavender is frequently used to make tea.


For centuries French lavender has been used in various cultures as a natural remedy and in aromatherapy, mainly to improve mood, reduce anxiety and depression, relieve restlessness or insomnia, and soothe intestinal discomfort. In Asian traditional medicine, it was used for its 'cooling' effect on the heart and mind. It was used for centuries to fill pillows in order to promote a good night's sleep and prevent nightmares. Recipes also have mentioned lavender as a remedy for insect bites and for burns. During World War I, lavender essential oil was used in smelling salts and to disinfect surfaces in hospitals. In the 1930s, French chemist René-Maurice Gattefossé burned his hand in the laboratory and applied lavender oil to it. He was so impressed with the quick healing process that he published a book in which he coined the term 'aromatherapy' for its therapeutic use. At the same time, French biochemist Marguerite Maury developed a method of applying lavender and other oils to the skin with massage, creating the practice of aromatherapy massage that is now used worldwide.


Only the oil is used in massage and aromatherapy, not the absolute. Lavender is also reputed to improve memory recall and work productivity. Lavandin is the form most often associated with aromatherapy products, potpourri, and candles, because it is cheaper to use and easier to obtain. A 2016 study suggested that lavender odorants were associated with reduced mental stress. Although most research has not confirmed the efficacy of lavender in affecting human diseases, limited clinical trials suggest that is has benefit for relieving pain, postnatal perineal discomfort, and hot flashes.


Masculine perfume products that feature lavender include the following:

Ach Brito Lavanda
Acqua di Genova 1853 Anniversario
Acqua di Parma Blue Mediterraneo Cipresso di Toscana, Colonia
Adidas Adventure (various), Victory League
Adolfo Dominguez Agua (various)
Airness Cool Instinct
American Crew Sport
Amouage Sunshine Man
Annick Goutal l'Eau de Lavande
Antonio Puig Agua Lavanda
Aramis Adventurer
Avon Musk Oxygen
Baldessarini Ambre Eau Fraiche
Bourbon French Lavender
By Kilian A Taste of Heaven
Calvin Klein Eternity
Carolina Herrera 212 (various)
Caron pour un Homme
Cerruti 1881
Chanel Platinum Egoiste
Chopard 1000 Miglia
Crabtree & Evelyn Lavender
Creed Bois du Portugal
Czech & Speake Oxford and Cambridge
Dolce & Gabbana
D.R. Harris Albany, Old English Lavender Water
Dunhill Valensole Lavender
Elizabeth Arden for Men
Elysees Fashion Marconi
Ésika d'Orsay Class
Evterpa Pobeditelyat
Ferrari Pure Lavender
Galimard 1747
George F. Trumper Lavender Water
Giorgio Armani Eau pour Homme, Stronger with You
Guerlain EdP Intense, Héritage
Halston 1976
Houbigant Fougère Royale
Hugo Boss Bottled Night
Jacomo Ambro
JADS International Red Shirt
Jean Paul Gaultier Le Mâle
Jo Malone Amber & Lavender
Jovan Musk
Lacoste l'Eau
Lanvin l'Homme
Loewe 001 Man
Marciano Guess
Marley Percival
Mauboussin Homme
Mont'Anne My Phone Platinum Luxe
Montblanc Legend
O Boticario Acqua Sensation
l'Occitane Lavender
d'Orsay Arome 3
Paco Rabanne pour Homme
Penhaligon's English Fern, Lavandula, Sartorial
Phytoderm Nomad
Prada Luna Rossa, Luna Rossa Carbon, Luna Rossa Extreme
Roberto Cavalli Black
Rochas Moustache
Roja 51
Royal Copenhagen 1775 Imperial
Salvatore Ferragamo F Black
Severnoye Siyanie Solnechnaya Lavanda
Shakespeare Macbeth
Shirley May Black Market
Shulton Night Spice
Style Adventure Sports
Swiss Guard
Taylor of Old Bond Street Luxury Lavender Water
Thierry Mugler A Men (various)
Tom Ford Beau de Jour, Costa Azzurra, Lavender Extreme
Ulric de Varens Lavande
Valentino Very
Vaquero
Victor Lavanda
Yardley English Lavender, Gentleman Legend
Yves St. Laurent La Nuit de l'Homme, Libre, Rive Gauche
Zara Amber Wood, Bergamot & Lavender, Scent #2

There are also very many unisex fragrances with prominent lavender.

Pineapple

Pineapple (Ananas comosus) is a tropical plant in the family Bromeliaceae, indigenous to the Amazon rain forest of South America. The pineapple is an herbaceous perennial that generally grows to 1.0-1.5 meter tall. It has a short, stocky stem with narrow, tough, waxy leaves that are 30-100 cm long. The leaves of most varieties have sharp spines along the margins although a few are smooth. A plant usually produces up to 200 flowers, with the individual flowers of the unpollinated plant forming berries and fusing to form a single large, compact, multiple or 'collective' fruit. The fruit surface is arranged in two interlocking helices, often with 8 in one direction and 13 in the other. It can take 18-24 months for a plant to produce a pineapple fruit.


After the first fruit is produced, side shoots develop on the main stem; these 'suckers' may be removed for propagation or can be left to produce additional fruits on the original plant. In the wild, pineapples are pollinated primarily by hummingbirds, although some are foraged and pollinated at night by bats. (In Hawaii, where pineapples were cultivated and canned throughout the 20th century, importation of hummingbirds was prohibited for this reason.) Under cultivation, because seed development decreases fruit quality, pollination is performed by hand. The most commonly used method for commercial growing is cloning, in which the crown, slips (leafy branches directly below the fruit), suckers, or shoots are used to produce a new plant. It was found in the late 18th century that pineapple plants can be forced into flowering by exposure to smoke, and eventually research showed that this was due to ethylene in the smoke, which led to forced flowering with ethylene vapor in Hawaiian production.

The first botanical description of cultivated pineapple was by Charles Plumier at the end of the 17th century, when he created the genus Bromelia. He described it as Ananas aculeatus fructu ovato. In 1753, the famous botanist Carl Linnaeus designated the pineapple as Bromelia ananas and Bromelia comosa in his Species Plantarum.


The wild pineapple plant originated from the Paraná–Paraguay River drainages between southern Brazil and Paraguay. Little is known about its first cultivation, but archeological evidence of cultivation and use has been found from as far back as 1200-800 BC in Peru and 700 BC-700 AD in Mexico, where it was grown by the Mayas and Aztecs. By the late 1400s, pineapple was widely distributed throughout South America and the Caribbean and was a stable component of the diet of the indigenous peoples. It was also used to make medicine, employed in rituals, fermented into wine, and taken on journeys for preventing scurvy.

Worldwide Spread

The first European to encounter the pineapple was Columbus, in late 1493 on Guadeloupe. He took some of the plants back to Spain when returning from his second voyage, calling it piña de Indes (pine of the Indians) because of its resemblance to a pinecone. It was documented subsequently in Peter Martyr's Decades of the New World (1516) and Antonio Pigafetta's Relazione del Primo Viaggio Intorno al Mondo (1524-25). The first reference in English to the pineapple fruit was the 1568 translation from the French of André Thevet's The New Found World, in which he described it being cultivated and eaten by the Tupinambá people near modern Rio de Janeiro. He called the fruit a 'Nana made in the manner of a Pine apple,' using the Tupi word nana meaning 'excellent fruit.' This usage was adopted by European languages and led to the plant's scientific name Ananas comosus, where comosus ('tufted') refers to the stem of the plant. According to etymological sources, the English word pineapple was first used in 1664, but the Oxford English Dictionary's first record of the word appeared in 1714. The actual word pineapple has only been used in English; all other European languages have referred to the pineapple as ananas.

Portuguese colonists took the fruit from Brazil to St. Helena in 1505, to Madagascar and southern India by 1550, to China in the 1590s, and to colonial Guinea on the West African coast in 1602. The Spanish introduced the pineapple to the Philippines and Java in the 1500s, to Singapore by 1637, and subsequently to Taiwan, the Cape of Good Hope, Burma, Thailand, and Hawaii. Missionaries took the pineapple from India to Australia in 1838.


The pineapple fascinated Europeans, who had little exposure to sweets, but it was not cultivated successfully in Europe until Pieter de la Court developed greenhouse horticulture around 1658. King Charles II was said to have been given the first pineapple grown in England in 1677. Live pineapple plants were distributed from the Netherlands to England in 1719 and to France in 1730. By 1733, King Louis XV of France had been presented with a pineapple that was grown in a hothouse at Versailles. And in Russia, Catherine the Great ate pineapples grown on her own estates by 1796.


Chelsea Gardens of London built a 'pineapple stove' that heated their hothouse in order to first cultivate pineapples for the required long growing cycle. Because of the high cost of equipment and labor required to grow them in a temperate climate in these greenhouse 'pineries' (before the development of central hot water heating systems in 1816), pineapples continued to be rare and highly valued and became a symbol of wealth and prestige. In the 1807 Proceedings of the Old Bailey, a case is mentioned in which a Mr. Godding was sentenced to banishment to Australia for seven years for stealing 7 pineapples. By the second half of the 18th century, pineapple production on British estates had become a source of great rivalry between wealthy aristocrats. John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore, was famous for building a hothouse topped by a huge 14-meter tall cupola in the shape of the fruit, now known as the Dunmore Pineapple. Interestingly, the fruit was rarely eaten at that time by the aristocrats, instead being used over and over for central displays at dinner parties. Some party-goers would even rent a pineapple for an evening and carry it around like an accessory. Eventually this 'pineapple madness' spread across Europe and to the American colonies, where a single pineapple could cost as much as $8000 in today's dollars.


In the late 17th century, the Netherlands acted as the central pineapple fruit hub for all of Europe and much of Asia, with most of it cultivated in Dutch Surinam for export. But by the early 19th century, fresh pineapples were transported directly from the West Indies in quantities large enough to reduce European prices somewhat. Later, pineapple production became dominated by the Azores for European consumption and by Florida and the Caribbean for export to North America. Initially pineapples were very difficult to transport due to the slow, hot voyages of sailing ships. But after the invention of the Wardian case (a terrarium-like glazed and sealed glass box) in 1842 by Nathaniel Bagshaw Ward, their shipment by sail became more practical. And with the introduction of steamships in the early 1800s, transport became much less expensive.

Commercial Production

The Spanish had introduced the pineapple into Hawaii in the 18th century, but the first commercial plantation was not established there until 1886. The most prominent investor in the pineapple market was James Dole, who moved to Hawaii in 1899 and started his plantation in 1900 on the island of Oahu. One of his employees, Henry Ginaca, invented an automatic pineapple peeling and coring machine in 1911, which greatly facilitated commercial processing of the fruit. The Del Monte Company also began growing pineapples there in 1917, and for decades the islands produced over 75% of the world crop. Hawaiian production finally began to decline in the 1970s because of increased competition, especially in Central and South America and southeastern Asia. Dole stopped its cannery operations in 1991, and Del Monte stopped growing pineapples in Hawaii in 2008. By 2013, the Dole Plantation grew pineapples in a volume of only about 0.1% of the world's production.


Many different varieties, most from the Antilles, were tried for commercial European greenhouse cultivation. Most prominent was the Smooth Cayenne (named because of its smooth leaves), which was imported to France in 1820 and subsequently re-exported to England in 1835, then to Australia and Africa. Since then, smooth Cayenne has remained the dominant cultivar in world pineapple production. Other common commercial cultivars include Hilo, Natal Queen, Pernambuco, and Red Spanish.

In the Philippines, Smooth Cayenne was introduced in the early 1900s, during the American colonial period, and Dole and Del Monte both established large-scale plantations there in the 1920s; the Southeast Asian trade was severely damaged during World War II, but the Philippines remained a major exporter of pineapples. By 2016, Costa Rica, Brazil, and the Philippines accounted for about one third of the world's production of the fruit, followed by Thailand and India.


In architecture and decorating in both Europe and the American colonies of the 17th and 18th centuries, pineapple figures became elements symbolizing hospitality and generosity, as well as wealth and luxury. Pineapple weathervanes and finials on public buildings, such as the gilt copper ones on the towers of St. Paul's Cathedral, as well as cast and carved architectural figures, were reminders of the pinecones on ancient Roman buildings.



Pineapple figures also were carved into stone and wood, including lintels and gateposts; stenciled onto walls; modeled in chinaware; and woven into carpets, tablecloths, napkins, and drapes. The image of a pineapple often was carved into American colonial bedposts, headboards, chairs, and armoires, and a guest who was spending the night would consider it a privilege to be given a room with such artistic flourishes. In 1751, George Washington, having tasted pineapples in Barbados, built a hothouse at his Mt. Vernon estate for growing pineapples. In post-Revolutionary War America, entrepreneurs began to grow pineapples in hothouses and selling them commercially, and innkeepers added the pineapple to their signs, door knockers, welcome mats, and advertisements, especially in the South.


Pineapple in Perfumery


There is some argument about whether or not actual pineapple essential oil exists commercially. Some people say that the oil is extracted from the fruit and peel of the pineapple by industrial cold pressing. Pineapple essential oil is said to be very expensive due to difficulties involved in its large-scale extraction.


Some writers claim that with the aromatic chemicals in the pineapple having been identified through headspace technology and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, synthetic versions are now used to make nearly all fragrances with pineapple notes. The aroma compounds producing the characteristic smell seem to depend upon where the crop is grown, the differing season patterns, different rates and stages of ripening and development of the fruit, and storage conditions. The oil components said to provide most of the scent include a variety of esters, lactones, acids, hydrocarbons, sulfur-containing compounds, and carbonyl compounds. Although much research has been done for over the last 60 years and there has a been a lot of discussion, there is still little clear understanding of the quantity of each constituent in the fruit and of the contributions of the various constituents to the fresh, sweet aroma of a pineapple. Over 280 volatile compounds have been identified, but few have been recognized as clearly providing elements of the smell. One considered by most experts to be among the most important is furaneol, which also is a flavor and scent component in strawberries. One relatively recent study, using aroma extract dilution analysis (AEDA) of a distillate from fresh pineapple, identified twelve compounds as key odorants, primarily HDF, ethyl methylpropanoates and methylbutanoates, and undecatriene. And a mixture of these chemicals in concentrations approximately equal to those in fresh pineapple produced a smell very similar to that of the fresh juice.

Other chemicals and extracts frequently are added additionally to reinforce or 'round out' the pineapple smell in commercial fragrances. These include coumarin, vanillin, amyl cinnamic aldehyde, benzyl cinnamate, citral, citronellol, eugenol, farsenol, geraniol, tree moss, and oakmoss. Oakmoss and bergamot turn the sweet pineapple note somewhat more bitter, and ambergris adds a salty touch to it.

In perfumery, pineapple provides a strong, intense sweetness without being cloying, but it also has an almost metallic sharpness, providing a counterbalance to rich, smooth ingredients such as vanilla, coconut, amber, caramel, and sandalwood. It most often is used as a top note but can also be featured as a heart note and less commonly in the dry-down. Tones with which it mixes well include other fruits (such as lime, lemon, apple, raspberry, and black current), flowers ( especially lily-of-the-valley, rose, iris, and jasmine), patchouli, pink pepper, vetiver, bergamot, musk, bamboo, and woods such as cedar and birch. It is fresh and is sometimes described as invigorating and 'punchy,' and it is generally more suited to daytime wear than for evenings, especially in seasonal summer compositions. Pineapple is such a strong, distinctive aroma that it is not appreciated by everyone. A subtype of the pineapple scent is the rarely used pineapple blossom note, which has a floral tone, with slight touches of grass and wood, and is somewhat less sweet.

Masculine pineapple fragrances include the following:

Abercrombie & Fitch Away, Fierce Confidence, First Instinct Together
Adolfo Dominguez
Alejandro Sanz Mi Acorde El
Alfred Dunhill Desire Gold
Aramis Bermuda Tonic
Armaf Club de Nuit Intense Man
l'Artisan Ananas Fizz
Athena Art Tre
Avon 015 Miami Nights, My Vibe Graffiti
Azzaro Chrome
Baldinini
Benetton Energy Man
Beverly Hills Polo Club Trophy
Bond No. 9 Riverside Drive, The Scent of Peace
Calvin Klein Eternity Flame, Summer 2010
Canali Summer Night
Carolina Herrera CH Kings
Carrera Jeans 700 Original Uomo
Cerruti 1881 Silver
Chris Adams Dispute
Christian Dior Higher Energy
Christian Riese Lassen Rising Wave Clear Green
Coty Avatar
Creed Aventus
Donna Karan DK, DKNY Summer 2016, Fuel
Elysees Fashion Marconi
l'Erbolario Felci
Esprit Man
Expand Love & Peace Brave
Faberlic Asterion, Atlantic
Faberge Brut Alaska
Gin Tonic Man
Givenchy, Ultramarine (var.)
Guy Fox Hermis
Hugo Boss Bottled Mats Hummels, Bottled Unlimited, Elements Aqua, Energize, Red
Ilum Dean Fresco
Jacomo
Jacques Bogart Santana Bay, Story Green
Jaguar Vision
Jeanne Arthes JS Magnetic Power Night
Joop! Chill Out, Nightflight
Kenneth Cole Blue
Liz Claiborne Curve
Loewe Agua de Loewe El
Louis Armand Ultimate Drive
Maxim's Leather Night I
Mexx Amsterdam Spring Edition Man
Molsheim Platinum
Mont Blanc Individuel, Legend
Natura Amo Esquenta, Homem Zero Grau
Nautica Blue
O Boticario Egeo On You, Egeo Provoke
Oriflame Urban Lovers
Phytoderm Platinum
Prime Collection Deep Sense Black, Marconi
Refan Coca Pura
Ted Lapidus
Tommy Hilfiger Dark Midnight, Sport
Thera Cosmeticos Lotus, Sur
Yvan Serras Black
Zara Happiness Loading, Midnight Hour, Rich Leather, Summer 14.0, Vibrant Leather Bogoss, W/END till 3:00 AM

There are no pineapple blossom compositions that are specifically designated as masculine, but there are several unisex products, including:

Ard Al Zaafaran Al Ibdaa Gold
Blend Oud Zagar
RisingWave Zero, Zero Ecstacy
Samy Andraus Love Dreams

Pepper

Today, on Thanksgiving Day, when many folks are feasting on good food, I thought it was appropriate to write about pepper in perfumery.

Pepper (Piper nigrum) is a perennial climbing vine (liana) in the family Piperaceae, thought to have originated in the Malabar region of southwest India. It grows to a height of up to 4m when supported. The original stem produces numerous lateral branches, and runner shoots arise from the base. Leaves are thick and have variable shapes and sizes. Pepper blooms with many tiny flowers, generally in May and June, and produces bunches of berries, each vine producing 1-1.5 kg of seeded berries (called peppercorns) every year. The pepper seed is distributed in the wild mainly by birds, but also by bats.


There are several varieties of pepper-producing plants, but only the fruit of P. nigrum is legally called pepper for exportation and sale. Wild peppers have a pantropical distribution and are most commonly found in the understory of lowland tropical forests. Pepper is cultivated commercially in India, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia, Madagascar, Brazil, and Cameroon. 300,000 tons of pepper are produced each year, accounting for about a quarter of the total global spice trade. Vietnam is the largest producer and exporter of pepper. The largest number of Piper species are found in the Americas (700), with about 300 species in southern Asia, 40 species in the South Pacific, and 15 species in Africa. Each of these area groups seems to be monophyletic (derived from a common genetic ancestor).


The name Piperaceae most likely was derived from the Sanskrit term pippali (which was used to describe the long pepper species P. longum), the Latin piper, and Old English pipor.

A pepper plant produces all four different types of pepper used in perfumery: green, black, white, or red peppercorns can be obtained from the same plant, depending upon the maturity of the peppercorns when harvested, and each contains its own essential oil.


- Green pepper is obtained by preventing the immature green berries from maturing by canning them, keeping them in a moisturized state, and/or treating them with sulfur dioxide. They are then dried quickly at high temperature to preserve the color. They also can be eaten fresh or in brine.


- Black pepper is obtained by harvesting the berries just before maturity. The berries are sometimes cooked briefly in hot water, which speeds the work of browning enzymes during subsequent drying. They are then allowed to sun-dry, wrinkle, harden, and turn black, fermenting very slightly.


- White pepper is the seed of the ripe fruit of the plant. It is a pepper that is allowed to mature before harvest, soaked in water for about a week ('retting') to allow removal of its pericarp, and then dried. It is the mildest and sweetest pepper.


- Red pepper is harvested after 9 months of ripening, with the peppercorns dried in the shade and either treated with the same color-preserving techniques as used with green peppercorns or preserved in brine and vinegar.


Two other species of Piper used for fragrances are the long pepper (or Indonesian pepper) (P. longum) and the cubeb pepper (or round, tailed, Java, or grey pepper) (P. cubeba or P. guineense). The long pepper is more closely related to black pepper botanically and in its piquant smell.


Cubeb is mostly grown in Java and Sumatra. The fruits of both are gathered before they ripen and are then dried. For commercial trade, cubeb usually consists of whole dried berries, similar in appearance to black peppercorns but with stalks ('tails') attached. The berries are hard and wrinkled and range from grey-brown to almost black in color. It has been mentioned in writing at least since the 4th century BC, usually included as an ingredient in aromatic mixtures with cinnamon and cassia. For centuries, Javanese cubeb growers protected their monopoly of the trade by scalding the berries to sterilize them, ensuring that the vines could not be cultivated elsewhere.

There are also two species in the woody-shrub Rutaceae family, unrelated to the Pipers and related to citrus fruits, which are used as well in perfumery: the Timut pepper(Zanthoxylum alatum), with grapefruit accents, and Szechuan (or Sichuan) peppers (Zanthoxylum species). Szechuan pepper varieties are grown in China, Taiwan, Japan, Korea, western India, Indonesia, Sumatra, Malaysia, the Philippines, and throughout the Himalayas of Nepal, Tibet, and Bhutan. Also closely related to the Szechuan pepper is the Japanese pepper (Z. piperitum), known sometimes as the Japanese prickly ash. Freshly harvested Timut, Szechuan, and Japanese peppers are left out to dry in the sun before processing.


Additionally used in perfumery is 'pink' pepper, the berries of the Peruvian pepper tree (Schinus molle) or the closely related Brazilian or 'peppertree' pepper (S. terebinthifolius). Pink pepper frequently is termed 'false pepper' because it is not hot. It is in the family Anacardiaceae, which includes the cashews, and its trees are native to Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, Peru, and Chile. It now grows mainly in Madagascar, New Caledonia, and Reunion Island, but it also has been introduced to the southern United States and Hawaii. The fruit of this tree is dried when ripe.


The pink pepper tree was considered sacred by the Incas. It has been documented in texts since the 5th century but did not become very popular until the 20th century. The terebinthifolius was said to have been introduced as an ornamental plant in 1891 in Florida, from where it spread rapidly, gaining the name 'Florida Holly.' Its name derives from the Greek word for lentisque trees that produce mastic, probably because it and pink pepper trees produce a similar secretion. The chemical constituent that is thought to produce most of their mild scent is carene.

Water pepper (Persicaria hydropiper), also called marshpepper and unrelated to the previously discussed peppers, is a plant of the family Polygonaceae. It is an annual herb bush. Native to Europe, temperate Asia, and North America, it is also found in Australia and New Zealand. The aromatic oil used in perfumery is distilled from the leaves.


History

Pepper, the 'King of Spices,' was documented in Indian cooking since at least 2000 BC. It also was well known in ancient Egypt and Assyria. The lost ancient port city of Muziris, in the western Indian state of Kerala, was famous for exporting black pepper and was mentioned in a number of classical historical sources for its trade with Egypt, Mesopotamia, Yemen, the Levant, Greece, and the Roman Empire. Pepper was often called 'black gold' and was used as a form of commodity money.


Archeologists found black peppercorns stuffed in the nostrils of the mummified Ramesses II, placed there after his death in 1213 BC. Black pepper and long pepper were known in Greece by the 4th century BC. By the time of the early Roman Empire, open-ocean trading with India's Malabar Coast was common, with travel timed to take advantage of predictable monsoon winds. Returning from India, the ships traveled up the Red Sea, and the cargo was then carried overland or through the Nile-Red Sea canal to the Nile River. There it was barged to Alexandra and then shipped to Rome and from to other parts of Europe.


When Rome was besieged by Alaric, king of the Visigoths, in the 5th century, he demanded 3,000 pounds of pepper as part of the ransom for the city. After the fall of Rome, the Persians and then the Arabs took over the central part of the spice trade from India. From the Mediterranean, pepper had been one of the first spices to arrive in Europe, and in the Middle Ages it began to play a major role in European cuisine. By the end of the Middle Ages, the trade was firmly controlled by Italian powers, especially Venice and Genoa. Pepper was quite expensive at that time, and it was the search for this precious spice which partially motivated the great voyages of exploration of the colonial empires, including the trips of Columbus and Vasco de Gama.

Initially the Portuguese gained some control of the spice trade on the Arabian sea, with the Treaty of Tordesillas giving them exclusive legal rights to the area of the world where black pepper originated. However, other trade networks successfully continued to import enormous quantities of pepper through Alexandria and Italy, as well as around Africa, and by the 17th century the Portuguese had lost almost all of their Indian trade to the Dutch and English. As pepper supplies for Europe increased, the price declined, and pepper eventually became an everyday seasoning among common citizens.


Pepper also was known in China by the 2nd century BC, according to reputed reports of the explorer Tang Meng. By the 3rd century, black pepper had appeared in Chinese texts, but it was not widely known there until around the 12th century, when it became a popular cooking ingredient for the wealthy and powerful. Marco Polo wrote of its popularity in China in the 13th century; and in the early 15th century an Admiral Zheng He returned with a huge amount of black pepper in his fleet's ships, making the luxury item much more of a commodity for general use.

Use in Perfumery

Most pepper oil is made in Western Europe and North America from imported black pepper. Pepper essential oil is produced by steam distillation of the dried and crushed berries, yielding around 1-3% by weight of the colorless to pale greenish-grey oil. Initially fluid, the oil becomes more viscous with aging. Less often the oil is obtained by supercritical CO2 extraction, which gives an extremely pure product that expresses the pepper scent most fully and accurately.


Overall, black pepper is most often associated with spicy, bracing, woody, earthy, aromatic notes that bring freshness and add nuance to other notes, including citruses (especially bergamot, mandarin, and lemon), other spices (ginger, clove, coriander, rosemary, clary sage, fennel), florals (lavender, geranium), sandalwood, and benzoin. Black pepper most often appears in the top notes of a fragrance. Despite study, the exact molecules that provide the pepper aroma remain a mystery, but it is thought that the main aromatic constituents are eugenol, limonene, beta-caryophyllenes, and alpha- and beta-pinenes. Other components include myrcene, para-cymene, linalool, cineol, cresols, and piperonal. Pink pepper and black pepper are used frequently in fragrances for both men and women, with the others used less often.


Black pepper and white pepper have a common spicy, woody tone, with white pepper being more intense and warmer, almost animalic. Unlike black pepper, white pepper's note runs through all phases of a perfume, participating in the top, heart, and base notes. White pepper especially gives a warm, spicy aspect to a perfume, blending well with woody, chypre, and oriental notes.

Timut pepper is very bright, with a lemony scent and pronounced grapefruit accents. Szechuan pepper oil has a bright, zesty, herbal, slightly fruity character. When most pure, it also has an animalic and metallic note. Oil from the related Japanese peppercorns is more citrusy.

Pink pepper has a fresh, delicate, floral-herbal, lemony accent somewhat reminiscent of lavender and bergamot, sometimes with a light rose or blackcurrant nuance. It is sweet-spicy, with hints of pine, anise, and menthol. It acts mainly in the top notes of a composition (but can also appear in the heart notes) and has been widely used by perfumers, frequently in combination with citruses, to add sparkle and 'height' without being too striking. Pink pepper essential oil has been about twice as expensive as superior-quality black pepper oil, but its price has been decreasing; and recently the pink pepper presence has become as ubiquitous as musk or rose in perfumes (especially those of Chanel, Trresor, and Yves St. Laurent). While traditional distillation techniques produced bottom-heavy essences of pink pepper, the soft technique yields a purer aroma with more sparkling top notes. A trend report in 2012 by Scentsy.com declared pink pepper to be a 'note of the future.' Said Tom Pastre of Creatique, a fragrance consulting firm, "Pink pepper is appropriate for these challenging times because it is uplifting and has a certain optimism to it. It's bold and zesty but has a warmth that's comforting. It is the contrasts that make it exciting."

Cubeb pepper aroma is described as pleasant and aromatic, somewhat similar to allspice, sometimes with a slight camphoraceous odor. Cubeb is the most fragrant of all known peppers and can seem overpowering to Western noses, so it is infrequently used in scent compositions for European and American markets. Cubeb essential oil sometimes is adulterated with oil of other Piper species, so perfumers must be cautious in obtaining it.

Water pepper has very little aroma and is a bit bright but not floral. It is described as similar to Szechuan pepper but somewhat more 'clean' and less pungent.

Many oriental perfumes with a bright, spicy accord have contained relatively high percentages of black pepper oil. Since the 1980s, black pepper has also appeared in fougère and citrus colognes for men. Until the recent appearance of black pepper mono-aromas such as Marc Jacobs Bang and Molton Brown Black Pepper, the highest known concentrations of black pepper oil were 6% in Ralph Lauren Extreme Polo Sport and 5% in Caron Parfum Sacre, with a number of others, such as Cerutti 1881 and Guerlain Homme having 1-2%. Higher percentages of black pepper have been more common in masculine fragrances.

Because the exact odorants producing a 'peppery' smell have still not been isolated and defined exactly, there are very few synthetic pepper materials manufactured. Givaudan produced 'pepperwood' (dimethylcarbamate, a linalool derivative), which has a bright, diffusive aspect that is said to be quite close to that of black pepper. The other synthetic that is commonly used, poivrol, actually smells more like fresh wood shavings than pepper.

Culinary Use

Culinary use of peppers for at least 9,000 years has been documented, with peppercorn remains found among food refuse in caves. In The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire of the first century BC, Edward Gibbon wrote that pepper was "a favorite ingredieint of the most expensive Roman cookery. The Apicius, a recipe collection compiled around the year 400, mentions pepper as a spice for most main dishes. In the Roman Empire, black pepper was relatively expensive but was readily available and used more frequently in foods than either salt or sugar. During the Middle Ages, trade routes deteriorated and the use of pepper declined somewhat, but it continued to be a profitable trade item. In addition to black pepper, long pepper and tailed pepper have been used commonly as food spices in various cultures. In some local cooking, such as that of West Africa, Mexico, and southeast Asia, pepper leaves are used for flavoring stews, to wrap meat for grilling, or eaten raw. In recent decades, pink pepper has become more popular in cookery, used as a sprinkling on salads, meats, stews, and exotic fruits and chocolates.

In Tang Dynasty China, cubeb was used as a condiment. Arabic books from the 9th century mention cubeb, and it was introduced to Arabic cuisine as a flavoring by the next century. Cubeb arrived in North Africa and Europe from India in the 14th century via Arab traders and became a valuable spice, ground for seasoning of pastries, meat, soups, and sauces. More recently, cubeb pepper has been used as a flavoring agent for gins and cigarettes in the West.

It has been claimed that during the Middle Ages, pepper was used to conceal the taste of partially rotten meat, but experts now doubt this. Pepper at that time was a luxury item, affordable only to the wealthy, who had easy access to unspoiled meat. And people then were aware that eating spoiled food would make them ill. Similarly, the belief that pepper was used as a preservative is doubtful: at the concentrations present when pepper is used as a spice, the antimicrobial properties are minimal. In addition, salt is a much more effective preservative and was readily available.

Szechuan pepper, of course, has been used commonly in Asian cooking, especially the Szechuan cuisine of southwestern China, producing a citrus flavor and a hot, tingling, numbing effect. It has the property of transforming other flavors tasted together with it or shortly after. Water pepper leaves have a pungent, burning, peppery taste and are used as a vegetable in Japan and other eastern Asian cuisines.

Medicinal Use

Black pepper and long pepper have been used for centuries in Indian Ayurvedic medicine, in which they have been ingredients in preparations for rejuvenation and detoxification. Pepper also has been used in amulets to protect against disease and other threats. Pepper appears in early Buddhist texts as one of the few medicines that a monk was allowed to carry. They believed it to cure illnesses such as constipation, toothaches, oral abscesses, sunburn, eye problems, and insomnia.

Betel pepper (P. betle leaves are still used in parts of India to wrap betel palm nut slices; its sap helps to release the stimulating effect of the betel. Conversely, roots of another species, kava (P. methysticum), is used as a socializing drink in areas of the Pacific because of its calming and mild euphoric effects, which are somewhat similar to those of alcohol and benzodiazepines.

People in many cultures take black pepper orally for headache, dizziness, stuffy nose, sinus infection, asthma, bronchitis, upset stomach, diarrhea, gas, colic, menstrual pain, weight loss, cancer, vitiligo, decreased sex drive, and arthritis. The oil is inhaled to prevent falls, to help with smoking cessation, and for trouble swallowing. Pepper is applied to the skin for itchiness, pain, and infections. Black pepper oil is used in blended massage oils or bath oils to improve circulation, resolve bruising, and ease joint and muscle aches. It is a popular aromatherapy component in diffusers for warming winter use.

Pepper's main constituent, piperine, has been studied for its potential to increased absorption of vitamins, beta-carotene, and iron, and research is under way to look at other possible physiological effects, including improvements in cholesterol levels, blood sugar control, and brain and gut health. Studies in animals have shown antioxicant properties, and at least one human study showed that black pepper combined with turmeric and ginger had anti-inflammatory effects.

Other Uses

Cubeb pepper has been used to flavor cigarettes for over a century. Pink pepper is used in candles and room sprays, as well as in personal care products. Piper is a model genus for scientific research in ecology and evolutionary biology due to its diversity and ecological importance, with some of the obligate and facultative mutualist species making them ideal systems for research on the evolution of symbiosis. Many types of pepper plants are used in garden as ornamentals in subtropical regions. The vines also are used as an ivy in temperate areas. Smaller species such as Celebes pepper (P. ornatum) can be indoor potted plants.

Some pepper varieties have been used by the indigenous populations in areas of Panama and Colombia to intoxicate fish, making them easier to catch.

Unsustainable logging of tropical primary forests is threatening a number of peppers. In the forests of Ecuador, for which comprehensive data exists, more than a dozen pepper species are known to be on the edge of extinction. In contrast, however, some other Piper species such as spiked pepper (P. aduncum have been distributed widely through human activity and have actually become major invasive species in certain areas.


Pepper fragrances for men (primarily black pepper):
10th Avenue Karl Antony Box Office
Abercrombie & Fitch 1892 Yellow, Fierce Icon
Acqua di Parma Cedro di Taormina
l'Amande Coriandolo
Aramis Gentleman, Impeccable
Avon Black Suede Hot, Black Suede Intense, Full Speed Supersonic, Unplugged
Axe Harmony
Burberry The Beat
Calvin Klein Liquid Gold Euphoria
Carolina Herrera Bad Boy
Cartier Declaration Essence LE
Chanel Allure Sport
C.O. Bigelow Elixir Black Pepper
Demeter Burn
Dior Sauvage
Dolce & Gabbana The One
Dr. Vranjes Firenze Gigember e Estragone, Vetiver e Poivre
Dunhill Icon Elite
Elite Model Attitute
Ésika Imperium
Eternal Gentleman Noble Spirit
Eudora Club 6 Cassino, Club 6 VIP
Frederic M Sport
Henrik Vibskov Type B
Hermès Terre d'Hermes
In the Box Barbarian, Terra
Jafra Xclusive
Jequiti Uzon Black, Uzon Magnetic
Jil Sander Strictly Night
Jimmy Choo Intense
Kenzo l'Eau LE
Kiotis Intense
Korres Mythology Tharros
Lambretta
Mahogany Next
Marc Jacobs Bang
Marc Joseph Unvo
Milton Lloyd No. 3 by Mean-Marie
Paul Smith Sunshine Edition
Perfumer's Workshop Zipped Rebel
Phytoderm Domini
Ramon Monegal Tristan
Royal Copenhagen 1775 Rival
Salvatore Ferragamo F, Uomo
Santa Lucia To Conquering
Scottish Fine Soaps Co. Thistle & Black Pepper
Sélection Excellence No. 62
Shirley May Compass
Superdry Orange
Thera Cosméticos Kiéve
Tonatto Albi
Ulric de Varens Hot! Brown
Viktor & Rolf Spicebomb Extreme
Yves St. Laurent l'Homme
Zara Black Pepper & Cedarwood, Blue Spirit, For Him, Frayed Edge, Legend Iron, Man Silver, Metallic Spirit, Nightfall Blue, Noble Palo Santo, Soft Haze, Sport 421, Tobacco Intense Dark

Pink pepper fragrances for men:
l'Acqua di Fiori Golf
Adolfo Dominguez Agua Fresca Citrus Cedro
Alfa Romeo Red
Apple Ultra Flight
Arno Sorel Shaman Platinum
Automobili Lamborghini L2
Avon Homem Power
Axe Instinct
Azzaro Chrome LE 2014, Hot Pepper
Cartier Declaration
Cerruti 1881 Essentiel, 1881 Intense
Chanel Allure Edition Blanche, Bleu, Eau Fraichissante pour l'Ete
Corinne Cobson Orange-Bergamot
Dior Sauvage
Dolce & Gabbana l'Amoureux
Dunhill 51.3 N
Eudora for Life
Geo. F. Trumper Havana
Jequiti Elixir
Johan B Sensual Intense
Joop! Homme Wild
Korres Tharros
Mansfield Tam Tam
Marc Jacobs Bang
Michael Bublé
Nino Amaddeo Terriblamant
Panouge Boldness
Prima Materia 5 Dragon
Pull & Bear Buddy Fraiche
Rituals Palace d'Ambre
Rock & Republic
Roja 51
s. Oliver Sport 1
Viktor & Rolf Spicebomb
Yves St. Laurent l'Homme Libre
Zara 11.0

Peppertree fragrances for men:
Cerruti 1881 Signature
David Haris Cachemere Platinum
Escada Magnetism
Jafra Valferra Spirit

Cubeb or tailed pepper fragrances for men:
John Varvatos Vintage
O Boticario Uomini Black
Salvador Dali 2010
Xerjoff Shooting Stars Dhofar

Szechuan pepper masculine fragrances:
Abercrombie & Fitch First Instinct, First Instinct Extreme
Alexandria Été Sauvage
Amouage Journey
Avon Lucky Me Intense
Azzaro Chrome United
Bagirro Tuxedo Blue
Bvlgari Yasep
By Kilian Dark Lord
Calvin Klein Eternity Aqua, Obsessed, Obsessed Intense
Carolina Herrera Men Sport
Celebon Typhon
Cerruti 1881 Bella Notte
David Beckham Homme
Davidoff Cool Water Wave
Dior Sauvage, Sauvage Very Cool
Dolce & Gabbana Light Blue Italian Zest
Emanuel Ungaro
Ermenegildo Zegna Talent
Etro ManRose
Eudora Carbon Speed
French Attitude Hector
Gerard Monet La Brise
Giorgio Armani Diamonds, Diamonds Black Carat, Diamonds He LE
Gritti Decimo
Hermès Terre d'Hermes Eau Intense Vetiver
Hugo Boss Orange
IKKS Burning for You
Jacques Battini Sport Xtreme
John Varvatos XX Artisan
Linn Young Updo Chic
Masaki Matsushima mat;homme
Mauboussin M Generation
Mercedes-Benz Infinite Spicy
Molsheim Beluga
Nikos Sculpture God's Night
O Boticário Quasar Next Star Wars The Mandalorian, Zaad Santal
Oriflame Ultimate
Parfums et Senteurs du Pays Basque Eder
Perry Ellis Red
La Rive Body Like a Man
Sapil Rave
Swiss Arabian Spirit Absolute
Thera Cosméticos Kitinos
Tolteca Omeyocan
Tom Ford Noir Anthracite
Tous Man
Victoria's Secret Platinum, Very Sexy, Very Sexy Platinum
Yves St. Laurent Opium
Zaharoff Business Over Pleasure
Zara Cool Heights

Japanese pepper fragrances (unisex):
Di Ser Hana Matsuri, Kagiroi
Masaki Matsushima Fleur de Sansho

Water pepper fragrances (unisex):
DS & Durga Pale Grey Mountain, Small Black Lake
Thomas Kosmala Sève Nouvelle

Rosewood

Rosewood (Aniba rosaeodora), also known as pau rosa in Portuguese and by the perfumery name 'bois de rose,' is a tropical canopy tree species in the Laurel family (which also includes camphor, cassia, bay, and cinnamon). The tree is indigenous to parts of the rainforest of South America, including the Brazilian states of Amapá, Amazonas, and Pará and areas of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela, French Guiana, Guyana, and Suriname. It is also found in parts of southern Mexico. It was 'discovered' by botanists in 1925, although there is evidence that the wood was exported to Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries for use in flooring, furniture, and guitars. The rosewood name comes from the pink-red color of the bark and wood and its floral rose-like smell. Other unrelated tree species are also called rosewood, such as Dalbergia nigra (Brazilian rosewood) and D. latifolia (Indian rosewood) because of their color, but they are only used for lumber and have never been a source for rosewood oil.


A. rosaeodora is a large evergreen tree, growing up to 30-50m in height and 2m in diameter. The tree grows slowly, maturing in 40-50 years. It produces oval leathery leaves and many very small yellow or pink to red flowers. The fruit is a purple drupe that is dispersed primarily by toucans.


Generally the trees are collected in the wild. After felling, they are cut into short logs that are stockpiled at a river bank. When river levels are high enough, the logs are floated downriver to a distillery. The distilleries often are mobile, sometimes by raft. At the distillery, the logs are shredded into chips, macerated in warm water, and then steam-distilled. All the parts of the rosewood tree, including the wood, the branches and twigs, the leaves, and the roots, are fragrant, but each part of the tree has a somewhat different scent. Until recently only the wood was used to produce oil for perfumery. Use of rosewood oil in perfumes began in the 18th century but exploded in the early 20th century, after its appearance in 1921 in the perfume Chanel Nº5.


The wood yields about 1% oil by weight. The oil is colorless to pale yellow or green. Smaller amounts of oil are extracted from the closely related species A. parviflora, and a somewhat similar oil is extracted from the unrelated Dalbergia sissoo tree in India. In perfumery, rosewood oil generally is used at a 10% dilution.


The rosewood oil olfactory profile is quite complex. The fresh, soft aroma is highly aromatic, earthy, rosy, and herbal-woody, with subtle camphoraceous, lemony, and fruity nuances. Rosewood most often appears in the heart or base notes of a fragrance but can be found occasionally in the top notes. During its long, mellow dry-down, the green-woody notes soften, deepen, and become sweeter. It is used in perfumery to round off sharp edges and to add harmony and body to formulations. Rosewood frequently is combined with florals (such as lavender, rhododendron, peony, lily, honeysuckle, and rose) and citrus (especially grapefruit, lemon, tangerine, and petitgrain), giving rich, spicy, peppery notes to compositions. It also blends well with sandalwood, cedarwood, coriander, rosemary, clary sage, frankincense, verbena, ylang-ylang, patchouli, vetiver, and geranium. Rosewood essential oil is thought to be safe: non-toxic, non-sensitizing, and non-irritating (except in the eyes).

Major fragrant components of the rosewood essential oil include the terpene linalool (up to 95%) - which gives the oil its smooth, woody, rosy aroma - and rubranine. Other chemical constituents that may also contribute include a-pinene, camphene, geraniol, neral, geranial, myrcene, limonene, 1,8-cineole, benzaldehyde, and a-terpineol. The linalool in the oil evaporates very slowly and acts as a fixative for perfumes.


World rosewood oil production now comes almost completely from Amazon areas of Brazil, with lesser production by Peru, and with other countries only contributing very minor amounts. The tree is an endangered species, with populations having declined rapidly due to destructive harvesting methods and to areas previously logged being vulnerable to fires and not seeing much regrowth. Although governments have enacted regulations since the 1980s to attempt to help conserve the species, enforcement has been very difficult, with 'timber mafias' continuing to illegally export the wood (mainly to China) for use in furniture, musical instruments, chess pieces, and chopsticks, and the oil for perfumery.



Rosewood continues to be the most-trafficked form of flora/fauna in the world. It was estimated that between 2003 and 2008, the total amount of oil exported from Brazil was over 4 times the quantity that could have been produced by legally harvested trees. According to academic studies, legal rosewood oil production today is 35-38 tons per year, around one tenth of the peak annual output of 300 tons in the late 1960s. The number of registered distilleries has fallen from more than 50 in the 1940s to 8. Yet even this reduced legal production translates to loss of 4,000 rosewood trees each year.

Under current Brazilian regulations, a tree must have a minimum diameter of 20cm for cutting, and each tree that is cut must be replaced by at least two replanted trees. The replanted trees come from commercial plant nurseries. Producers must have CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species) Export Certificates obtained at a country's capital, then must transport barrels of the oil across the jungle to airports from which it can be flown abroad. The entire process can take 3-4 months, adding to the high cost of the oil.

Early experiments with artificial propagation and cultivation most often failed, but more recent attempts have shown more success. With a number of projects dedicated to sustainable harvests, it has been found that cultivated trees as young as 4 years old can produce essential oils with nearly the same chemical composition as that from the wood of much older trees. Recently the companies that grow the trees and sell the oil, such as Floral Concept in France, have been using all the parts of the tree, attempting to find a balance that can produce desirable scents for perfumers. The companies claim that by chromatography, oil from the leaves shows only minor differences compared to the wood oil, and some perfumers predict that eventually rosewood leaf oil will completely replace the natural wood oil in fragrances.


Since the threat to rosewood has become well known, the unrelated Cinnamomum camphora (known as Ho Sho or Ho Leaf), a non-endangered species, has been used as a low-cost and sustainable alternative when a natural linalool is desired. Its oil has a similar but somewhat sharper scent. Synthetic linalool, a by-product of vitamin manufacturing introduced in the 1950s, has been improved gradually with successive generations and is now used in some perfumes, sometimes in combination with similar natural aromatic materials that also have a high linalool content and that mimic the natural rosewood profile. Even sophisticated 'noses' are finding it increasingly difficult to detect the difference between rosewood essential oil and the synthetics, and unscrupulous manufacturers sometimes market synthetics as the authentic oil. Other natural substances such as rose, geranium, coriander, rosemary, and palmarosa are used in some perfumes to 'boost' the effect of the small amounts of rosewood oil.


Linalool from rosewood also has been used in the past for flavoring soft drinks, alcoholic beverages, confectioneries, and medications, but since the 1960s the essential oil has been replaced nearly completely in these products by the petrochemical synthetic form.

When used in a diffuser for aromatherapy, rosewood oil blends have a rose-like fragrance that is said to be soothing, harmonizing, and relaxing, reducing stress and supposedly stimulating the immune system. Some believe the oil is an aphrodisiac and can treat frigidity and impotence. In skin care products such as massage oils, creams, and lipsticks, rosewood is reputed to have antiseptic, analgesic, anti-aging, and firming properties. Ayurvedic medicine has used the oil to treat a variety of ailments.

The wood has been used traditionally by indigenous peoples of the Amazon basin for making canoes, and they have put rosewood oil into their soaps and ointments.

Fragrances with significant rosewood for men:

Abercrombie & Fitch Fierce
Alexandria Alexander the Great
Alfred Dunhill Blend 30, D
Amouage Dia
Azzaro Chrome, Twin
Baldessarini Cool Force
Balenciaga Ho Hang
Black Phoenix Alchemy Lab Endymion
Bottega Verde Blu di Spezie
Brooks Brothers Black Fleece
Bvlgari Extreme
Burberry Brit Summer
Cacharel Amor
Calvin Klein Eternity, Obsession
Cartier Pasha
Cerruti 1881 Acqua Forte
Chanel Allure, Bois Noir, Egoiste
Comme Des Garcons Palisander
Cuba Paris Cuba Wild Heart
Davidoff Zino
Dolce & Gabbana Light Blue, Light Blue Italian Zest
Eclectic Collections Factor, VO
Eisenbereg Palissandre Noir Secret
Emanuel Ungaro for Him
Faberlic Favorite, Pacific, Volcano
Fulton & Roark Tybee
Galimard Bel Canto
Gant Liquid
Genty Alto Mare
GianMarco Venturi Frames Essence
Gillette Blue Dive
Guerlain Habit Rouge
Halston Z
Henderson Classic City
Hermès Equipage, H24
Il Profvmo G11, Santal Rouge
Jimmy Choo Urban Hero
Jovoy Paris Boise
Karl Lagerfeld KL
Kenzo Electric Wave
Lancome Miracle
Lia Ruy Aristocrat
Mahogany Pimenta Rosa e Cedro
Mazolari Augusto
Milton Lloyd American Legend, London 2000
Molton Brown Tobacco Absolute
Oriflame Intense Oud
Paco Rabanne, PR Black XS, PR Invictus Aqua, PR XS
Pal Zileri Fougere e Legni, Venice Cup
Pascal Morabito Black Granit
Paul Smith Extreme Man
Pierre Cardin Revelation
PM Fedora, Gent
Police Pure New York Man, Titanium Wings
Red Lapidus Le Roy Soleil
Tuscany Forte
Versace Blue Jeans, Man, Versus
Xerjoff Kobe
Yardley Black Label

Vanilla

Vanilla is a spice obtained from orchids of the genus Vanilla, primarily from pods of the flat-leafed vanilla species (V. planifolia). The plant is a perennial climbing vine which grows up an existing tree, pole, or other support (such as a commercial trellis or 'shader') using aerial rootlets. Left alone, it grows as high as possible, with few flowers; but growers fold the higher parts of the plant downward every year, which greatly stimulates flowering. The plant receives all of its nutrients from soil and air and is not parasitic.


The Vanilla plant produces yellow, green-yellow, or creamy white flowers, which may not appear for up to 3 years after the vines are planted. Pollination is required for the plants to produce the flower and seed pod from which the spice is obtained. In natural conditions, the flowers are pollinated by bees and hummingbirds, but on plantations it is done manually. The growing season lasts about 2 months, but each flower last only a day or less and produces one fruit. The fruits (pods), initially resembling large green beans, are about 8mm wide by 15cm long and become brown-red to black when ripe. Inside is an oily thick liquid full of tiny seeds. If left on the plant, the pod ripens and opens at the end.

History

Pre-Columbian Mesoamerican people cultivated the vanilla vine, using it for fragrance in temples and to put in protective amulets and medicinal oils. The current theory is that the Totonac people, who live on the east coast of Mexico in the present-day state of Veracruz, were among the first to domesticate vanilla, sometime before the 15th century. Aztecs invading from the central highlands of Mexico conquered the Totonacs and adopted their use of vanilla. They named the fruit tlīlxochitl, meaning 'black flower,' because it shrivels and turns black shortly after being picked. The Aztecs appear to have used it mainly for their royal chocolate drink called xocoatl. The modern name vanilla is derived from vainilla, the diminutive of the Spanish word vaina (from the Latin vagina for a sheath or pod), translated as 'little pod' and the name given to the fruit by Portuguese and Spanish explorers. The word entered the English language in 1754, when botanist Philip Miller wrote about the genus in his Gardener's Dictionary.

Conquistador Hernán Cortés is thought to have introduced both vanilla and chocolate to Europe in the 1520s. There it became popular as a treatment for a number of diseases, as well as being used as a flavor additive for foods and drinks and a scent source for perfumes. The apothecary to Queen Elizabeth I, Hugh Morgan, is said to have introduced vanilla as the royal flavor. Plant cuttings were taken to France and England in an attempt to cultivate it and disrupt the Spanish monopoly on the trade, but the plants withered and died and never produced fruit.

Recently, however, another theory has been proposed for first use of vanilla. At the Bronze Age Canaanite site of Megiddo in Israel, archeologists have uncovered a tomb containing three jugs with traces of chemical compounds found in natural vanilla extract, including vanillin and 4-hydroxybenzaldehyde. The lead researcher, Vanessa Linares, argues that only vanilla beans could have produced the amount of chemicals found in the jugs; and it is known that trade routes to the area from Asia and Africa were active at the time. This suggests that vanilla may have come there from orchids in East Africa, India, or Southeast Asia and that vanilla use is at least 3600 years old. There is no other record of vanilla in the ancient Middle East, so the theory has not been confirmed.

Belgian botanist Charles Francois Antoine-Morren discovered in 1837 that pollination was required for vanilla fruit production, and he pioneered a method of artificial pollination. However, it proved unworkable and was never used commercially. In 1841, Edmond Albius, a 12-year-old enslaved child who lived on the French island of Réunion in the Indian Ocean, discovered that the plant could be hand-pollinated successfully, and his method is still used. With a beveled sliver of bamboo, an agricultural worker lifts the membrane separating the plant's male and female parts; then, using the thumb, they transfer the pollen from the anther to the stigma. The self-pollinated flower will then flower. Because of the short life of the flower, growers must inspect each plant closely every day.


Global Production

Three major species of vanilla are grown globally, all thought to have derived from an original species found in parts of what is now Mexico and Guatemala. They are V. planifolia or Bourbon vanilla, grown on Madagascar, Réunion, the Comoros, and other tropical areas of the Indian Ocean, as well as in Mexico; V. tahitensis or Tahitian vanilla, grown in the South Pacific; and V. pompona or West Indian vanilla, found in the West Indies, Central America, and South America. Smaller crops, primarily of Bourbon vanilla, are grown in Africa, India, and China. Virtually all vanilla is grown within a 20-degree band on either side of the Equator. Tahitian vanilla, whose stock originally came from Mexico, comprises only about 1% of total vanilla production. (Genetic modification changed its flavor and fragrance over time, and it is now considered to be its own species.) V. pompona has lower productivity and lower vanillin content, but it is more resistant to disease and flowers more readily. It is claimed that all West Indian vanilla stock came originally from a single cutting in the Jardin des Plant in Paris. There are dozens of other vanilla variants, but they are not used commercially.


Until the mid-19th century, Mexico had a monopoly on growing vanilla. In 1819, French entrepreneurs shipped vanilla plants to the islands of Réunion and Mauritius for commercial planting, and they thrived. Soon the plants were sent on to the Comoros Islands, the Seychelles, and Madagascar. By 1898, Madagascar, Réunion, and the Comoros produced 200 tons of beans, about 80% of world growth that year.

After a tropical cyclone ravaged key vanilla croplands, the market price of the spice rose sharply in the 1970s and remained high through the early 1980s despite the commercial introduction of large amounts of Indonesian vanilla. In the mid-1980s, the cartel that had controlled vanilla distribution and prices since 1930 disbanded. Over the next few years, prices dropped 70%, but they rose sharply again after tropical cyclone Hudah his Madagascar in 2000. That cyclone event, political instability, and succeeding poor crop weather drove prices up by 2004, which brought new countries into the industry. Prices decreased after 2005 due to a large crop and decreased demand caused by production of imitation vanilla, but spiked again in 2017 following cyclone Enawo, which destroyed 80-95% of two of the largest vanilla-producing regions in Madagascar. There has been criticism since then of the low quality of what has been called 'hurricane vanilla,' produced from pods harvested prematurely in an attempt to meet market demand.


In 2018, world production of vanilla was nearly 7600 tons. The majority of the world's commercial vanilla is V. planifolia, commonly known as Bourbon vanilla (from the former name of Réunion, Île Bourbon) or Madagascar vanilla. Madagascar and Indonesia cultivate two-thirds of the world's supply of vanilla, with Madagascar alone producing around 40% of the pods each year. With greater political stability and government, Indonesia is likely to overtake Madagascar soon as the largest global producer.

Due to droughts, cyclones, and poor farming practices, there are continuing concerns about future global vanilla supplies and their prices. There is also much stealing from Madagascar farmers and world traders, causing further market instability and higher costs. Growers sometimes 'brand' their beans with pins or knives when they are green, and the marks remain after the beans are dried, allowing identification of their product if the stolen pods are ever recovered.

Some experts believe that the greatest threat to natural vanilla availability is the insatiable demand of consumers (especially those in the U.S., the world's largest consumer) for the beans. Each American consumes around 5.4g of vanilla, a little over 2 beans, every year, which adds up to over 638 million beans. The experts think that the answer, in the future, may be to move toward more environmentally friendly ways of producing greater amounts of artificial vanilla. Current methods use catalysts that pollute water runoff, but there is ongoing research into safer processes. This assumes that consumers will be content with simple vanillin flavor and scent. As it is, many corporations now substitute the newest generation of imitation vanillas for the natural one, calling it 'natural flavors' or 'natural scent' on the label. This allows pricing that undercuts the small growers, driving many of them to tear up their crops and leave their land to seek work in industrialized countries.

However, traditional vanilla may be making a comeback, thanks to consumer demand for 'all-natural' foods and beverages. Recently several giant food companies, including General Mills, Hershey’s, Kellogg’s, and Nestlé, vowed to eliminate artificial flavors and additives from many of their foods sold in the U.S. But with demand increasing, there is a marked trade imbalance. Production of Madagascar beans had plummeted to just over 1,000 tons, about half its normal harvest; and along with rising demand, prices more than doubled to $11,000 per kg. Says Carol McBride, category manager at spice supplier Symrise, "The amount of all the vanilla beans in the world is not sufficient to flavor everything that everyone wants to flavor." Consequently, flavor companies are working to find additional sources of higher-quality natural vanillin and to boost both the quantity of bean-derived vanilla. For example, Solvay makes a natural vanillin by using a proprietary strain of yeast to ferment ferulic acid; and Mane ferments eugenol from clove oil. But yields are generally low because high concentrations of both of those substrates are toxic to the microbes, as is vanillin itself, and because the microbes also produce undesirable byproducts from which obtaining the vanillin requires specialized or mutated strains and lengthy incubation.

Recently companies have developed processes to feed glucose to genetically modified microbes that produce vanillin glucoside, with a sugar group much less toxic to the organism. At the same time, researchers have identified cells that express a gene coding for a vanillin-producing enzyme in the beans, and this may allow plant geneticists to select orchid varieties that produce more vanillin or to develop transgenic plants with higher enzyme activity. It is unclear whether this type of GMO vanillin will be marketed in the near future, and there is concern about possible consumer backlash against their use.

To get around these problems, manufacturers currently are using increasing amounts of lignin from wood to produce vanillin. Borregaard in Norway operates a large 'biorefinery' that converts spruce trees into chemicals, with softwood lignin as a byproduct. This lignin can be converted via heat and pressure in the refinery to vanillin. The product is considered sustainable, although it can't be labeled commercially as 'natural' at this point.

Another approach being used by Symrise, Givaudan, Mane, and IFF is to set up major financed-grower programs in current production areas of the world, helping the smallholder farmers to maintain consistent output and quality and encouraging them to continue to farm. The operations also teach farmers how to preserve soil fertility, as well as sponsoring associated community education, healthcare, and food programs.

Harvest

The green vanilla pods reach full length in 4-6 weeks and then remain on their branches ripening for 8-9 months before being harvested, at which point they are green, scentless, and very bitter-tasting.


Vanilla fruit harvesting also is very labor-intensive and requires a great deal of knowledge and experience, since common methods for determining the maturity of the beans are unreliable: yellowing at the blossom end, the current commonly used indicator, occurs before beans accumulate their maximum vanillin concentrations. But beans left on the vine until they turn brown, while having higher higher vanillin levels, may split and have lower overall quality and market value. To ensure the finest scent, each pod must be picked by hand just as begins to show the first signs of splitting on the end. Says Tim McCollum of Madécasse, a vanilla trading company, "Hand pollination is a learned skill. Many farmers have been growing vanilla for three to four generations. Smallholder farmers have an absolute sixth sense as to when the orchids will bloom."

Curing

After being harvested, the pods are cured. Several methods for this exist, but all consist of four basic steps: killing, sweating, slow-drying, and conditioning.


Killing is the process of disrupting the tissue of the fruits to stop growth and initiate enzymatic reactions that produce the aroma (similar to the curing of tobacco). Killing may be accomplished by heating in hot water or in an oven, freezing, scratching, or exposure to direct sunlight (as was done by the Aztecs and is still done in Mexico). The different methods give different profiles of enzymatic activity and thus different scents. The 'Bourbon method' of plunging the beans into boiling water for a few minutes is used by most producers worldwide, since it gives a soft, pliable bean.


Sweating is a hydrolytic and oxidative process that causes chocolate-brown coloration but retention of 60-70% of the moisture content. It traditionally consists of keeping the pods densely stacked in wool or other cloth, which retains high humidity and a temperature of 113-149 degrees F, for 7-10 days. Daily exposure to the sun or repeated dipping of the fruits in hot water may also be used.


Drying is reduction of the bean moisture to 25-30% to prevent rotting and to lock in the aroma. It is achieved by exposure to air and traditionally also by exposure to alternating shade and sunlight. Often the fruits are laid out in the sun during the morning and returned to their boxes in the afternoon, or spread out on a wooden indoor rack, for 3-4 weeks. Drying is the most problematic stage, since unevenness in the process can lead to loss of vanillin.


Conditioning is done by wrapping the pods in paraffin paper and storing them for 5-6 months in closed boxes, where white 'frost' crystals of vanillin appear on the bean surfaces and the fragrance develops.


Once fully cured, the vanilla fruits are sorted and graded by quality and then allowed to rest for a month or two to finish developing full flavor and fragrance. Each country has its own grading system; and individual vendors, in turn, sometimes use their own criteria for describing the quality of the pods they offer for sale. In general, the grade is based on length, appearance (color, sheen, presence of any splits or blemishes), and moisture content. The highest-grade pods are used mainly for flavoring foods, especially by restaurant chefs, despite the fact that their visual appearance and moisture level do not necessarily guarantee the highest concentration of flavor and aroma molecules such as vanillin. Beans with localized defects are cut to remove blemishes. Lower-grade pods are used for purposes in which appearance is not as important, such as in the perfume industry and in production of vanilla flavoring extract.


Scent

Real seed pod extract is a complex mix of several hundred aromatic compounds. The scent of vanilla seems to be due mainly to a few chemical components, chiefly vanillin and piperonal (heliotropin), with significant contributions from other alcohols, esters, and aldehydes even though they are present at much lower concentrations. Cured pods contain about 2% vanillin. The aroma of natural vanilla from the plant varies depending upon the species, the growing conditions, and the processing - its own unique terroir. For instance, although the plants grown in the Indian Ocean and those grown in Mexico are essentially the same plant, major differences in the soil and climate produce significant scent differences.

Extractions of vanilla used in perfumery include:
Vanilla absolute or essential oil, dark brown, viscous, with crystals, and having the best and strongest scent, is extracted using organic solvents. GC-O analysis has shown the extract to have over 26 odor-active volatile compounds.
vanilla CO2, a creamy, pale yellow to tan substance, more often used in solid perfumes
vanilla oleoresin, with a rich, sweet scent, usually used in oil-based fragrances
vanilla water-soluble, weaker and very infrequently used


Perfumers discriminate among the various types of natural vanilla aromas in order to create their unique fragrances. Tahitian vanilla is the most rare and expensive one, because although its taste is milder, its scent is stronger. It contains much less vanillin and more heliotropin, which gives a sort of aniseed or fruity nuance. Some consider Bourbon vanilla grown in Mexico to be the world's best, while others believe that the spice from Réunion is the best. The aroma of V. planifolia is generally rich, smooth, creamy, and buttery. That of beans from the highlands of Sri Lanka is famously sweet and fruity, with a hint of slightly toasted cocoa.

Generally vanilla is described as having an initial soft woody scent, followed by floral, fruity, and spicy notes, sometimes with a hint of tobacco leaf. Used primarily with floral, fruity, woody, and spicy scents, it rounds off other scent notes, adding depth and an exotic character. When added to a fragrance composition, vanilla 'holds open' our nasal olfactory receptors, slowing down their sensation processing and giving more time for the perception and experience of other scent notes in the composition. Vanilla blends best with amber, labdanum, and florals such as ylang-ylang, but it also mixes well with citruses such as bergamot, grapefruit, lemon, mandarin, orange, and tangerine; with woods like cedar and sandalwood; and with spicy notes such as frankincense. Gifted noses say that real vanilla is noticeably earthier than the synthetic, with touches of treacle and a sort of 'booziness.' Probably due to its reputation as an aphrodisiac, vanilla frequently has been found in stereotypically 'sexy,' 'girly,' or 'younger' creations. A general consensus is that the warmth of vanilla is most appropriate in fragrances for the cooler months of the year.

Explanations for the marked recent popularity of vanilla-based fragrances have focused on the stresses of modern life causing a focus on pleasant childhood memories of 'better times' that are associated with the comforting smell of vanilla, as well as on the overall 'softer, more caring,' simpler, and purer tones of perfumes since the 1990s, as opposed to the thrusting dominance of 1980s compositions. In addition, medical researchers have shown that there are innate positive physiologic reactions to the scent of vanilla, with reductions in stress and anxiety, especially in cancer patients undergoing stressful treatment procedures. The modernization of gender views in perfumery also is a factor, with less cultural pressure now for men to avoid stereotypically 'feminine' notes like vanilla and rose.

Synthetic Vanillin

Synthetic ('imitation') vanilla essence usually consists of a solution of vanillin in ethanol. Vanillin was first isolated in 1858 by Nicolas-Theodore Gobley. In 1874, Gerdinand Tiemann and Wilhelm Haarmann identified its chemical structure, and they and others soon discovered that it could be extracted from glycosides of pine tree sap, clove oil, and rice bran. Eventually it was found that vanillin could be synthesized artificially from various raw materials, including lignin from plants and wood pulp, and even from cow feces. In the 1970s Rhône-Poulenc, now Solvay, commercialized a pure petrochemical method of production. Today about 85% of vanillin comes from the petrochemical precursors guaiacol and glyoxylic acid. It is estimated that over 95% of the 18,000 or more 'vanilla' products on the market actually just contain synthetic vanillin rather than natural vanilla.


Synthetic vanillin, a phenolic aldehyde, is very standardized in its molecular structure (C8H8O3) and properties. The single-scent note of chemical vanillin can't compare to the complex scent of true vanilla beans for use in perfumery, but it has been very popular nonetheless. It was first used in Jicky's original formula, but its fame exploded with the launch of Guerlain Shalimar in 1925, and its use shaped the perfumery class now known as Oriental.

Manufacturers sometimes adulterate vanilla products with cheaper material, such as vanillin from tonka beans. In the U.S., castoreum, an exudate from the castor sacs of beavers, has been approved as a food additive, and small amounts are used to mimic vanilla, often simply labeled 'natural flavoring.' It is employed in a similar manner to augment the scent of vanilla in perfumes.

Cooking and Other Uses

In addition to the extract, vanilla seeds and pods are both have been used in the cookery of many cultures, as well as in flavoring a variety of manufactured sweet foods and beverages, particularly chocolate (as well as caramel, strawberry, and coconut), confections, ice cream, yogurt, and bakery goods. Synthetic vanillin (and to a much lesser extent vanilla) is also used to flavor medicines and in industrial applications, such as for concealing the strong smells of rubber tires, paint, and cleaning products.

In many world cultures, vanilla has been used medicinally by ingestion, inhalation, and skin application for various ailments. Taken by inhalation, it is thought to be relaxing and soothing to the mind. Applied in a massage blend, it is considered to be an aphrodisiac and a treatment for frigidity and sterility. Some have believed that it has soothing and anti-inflammatory skin properties. And modern researchers in Germany have shown that the fragrance of vanilla calms by reducing the startle reflex in humans and other animals, an apparently essential property independent of any 'childhood associations.'

Most vanilla orchid species exude a sap from their cut stems and from where the beans are harvested which can cause moderate to severe contact dermatitis in plantation workers. Much less often, vanilla in perfumes and cosmetic products can cause skin reactions in sensitive individuals.


'Masculine' fragrances with significant vanilla include the following:

Acqua di Parma Blue Mediterraneo Mandorlo di Sicilia
Al Contrario Tiziana Terenzi
Architects Club Arquiste
Atelier des Ors Lune Feline
Chanel Allure Home Edition Blanche, Chanel Bleu
Coach Platinum
Creed Sublime Vanille
Dior Homme Intense
Dolce & Gabbana The One
Ermenegildo Zegna Bourbon Vanilla
Exuma Black Vanilla
Frederic Malle Musc Ravageur
Giorgio Armani Code Absolu
Givenchy Gentleman, Givenchy Pi
Hugo Boss No. 6
Imaginary Authors Memoirs of a Trespasser
Initio Absolute Aphrodisiac
Jean Paul Gaultier Le Male
Jeroboam Insulo
Jo Malone Vanilla & Anise
Karen Low Xchange Wonderman
Maison Margiela Replica By the Fireplace
Mancera Aoud Vanille
Marly Herod, Marly Layton, Marly Pegasus
Mau White Mau
MDCI l'Homme Aux Gants
Mercedes-Benz Select Night
l'Occitane Eau des Baux
Paco Rabanne Pure XS
Profumum Roma Dulcis in Fundo
Roja Dove Enigma
Tauer Vanilla Flash
Tom Ford Noir Extreme, Tom Ford Tobacco Vanille, Tom Ford Vanille Fatale
Valentino Uomo Intense
Versace Eros
Viktor & Rolf Spicebomb Extreme
Vintage Vanilla Intense
Yves St. Laurent Opium
Zara No Day

Barbershop Scent



The term 'barbershop scent' is used frequently, and fragrances that purport to represent it are very popular right now. But often it is unclear what exactly is meant by the term, and each person probably has his own idea of what it means. Some suggest that it implies scent memories of old-time barbershops and recreations of them. Others argue that there were actually very few scents involved with a barbershop experience, mainly just a few classic aftershave lotions such as Pinaud Clubman and Lilac Vegetal, Royall Bay Rhum, and Old Spice Original. And with traditional barbershops replaced more and more with unisex hair salons, do younger men even have any distinct memory of traditional barbershops and their associated smells? Perhaps the scents of a barbershop have simply become a style of smell associated mentally with a past tradition (and perhaps with a beloved elder relative such as a grandfather).



Classic Only

Those in the first camp of shavers agree that there are just a few legitimate barbershop scents and that the term is overused. They claim that an old barbershop simply smelled of a 'manly' mixture of talc, shampoos, hair tonics, Barbicide, clipper oil, smoke and ashtrays, dust, and cheap coffee - the smell of a small-town shop with comic books and men's magazines. And they propose that only vintage products used in the past in traditional barbershops comprise the category.



Nostalgia

Others think that anything inspired by or somehow reminiscent of a barbershop image is okay, such as Chanel Égoïste Platinum or Azzaro. Another example is Guy Laroche Drakkar Noir: although it is not typically used by barbers, Drakkar Noir employs notes and accords that resemble shaving products, its lavender and dry-herbal qualities suggesting those of common shaving soaps. These products, while not traditional, are thought to capture the 'vibe' of an old-time barbershop.



Fougères

Still others think of the term a bit vaguely as denoting a family of perfumes, primarily represented by the aromatic fougères and based on lavender (as well as coumarin and oakmoss and perhaps vetiver), such as Yves St. Laurent's Rive Gauche, Lagerfeld Classic, Bleu de Chanel, Penhaligon's English Fern, or the iconic Houbigant Fougère Royale. This is not really a surprising association, given that lavender soothes the skin and is an effective disinfectant, used frequently by early barbers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.



It is said that in most of the 1900s, the average gentleman wasn't interested much in perfuming his body, leaning more toward being (or at least smelling) clean. Playing upon this trend, pioneers of archetypical modern masculinity who made early men's aftershaves and colognes aimed for scents suggesting cleanliness and shaped the behaviors of decades of succeeding luxury brands. In 1903, Merton E. White registered the 'Osage Rub' trademark for his hair tonic, and it was promoted with ads stating that 'all barbers get 10 cents per application.' Its crisp eucalyptus tone is repeated now in many modern products. At around the same time, William Andrews published a book titled 'At the Sign of the Barber's Pole: Studies in Hirsute History,' which proposed that barbershop fragrances were primarily based just upon sweetness and powder. This was thought to have derived from men's ancient use of floral waters and of hair powder made of wheat flour until the late 18th century.



Regardless of one's particular school of thought about the term, opinions about barbershops fragrances are always subjective; but nearly everyone agrees that for some reason, a stereotypical barbershop smell should be relatively potent and should have great longevity.

Barbershop Notes



In online discussions of barbershops smells, many have noted that when they have gotten a straight razor shave from a barber, he often used a sandalwood lather to soften the whiskers. The shave was frequently completed with something like a Pinaud tonic or a Lucky Tiger product. Whatever was used, it most often was sweet, herbal, spicy, fresh, and very powdery. According to polls of shavers, when the question is asked about what a barbershop scent smells like, the most-often noted individual ingredients were:
73% talcum powder
46% Pinaud Clubman
38% alcohol or disinfectant
26% leather
24% wood
24% sandalwood

This agrees with the word used most often to describe an American barbershop scent, which is 'powdery.' Scent notes named most often in this context include vanilla, musk, rose, orris, lavender, and white florals. In contrast, the tone of a European barbershop appears to be completely different. There, apparently, the predominant scent note is thought to be almond (such as in Cella, RazoRock p.160, and Proraso). But it is said that in Russian, Polish, and German neighborhoods, the predominant smell was Tabac; in Little Italy areas it was menthol and eucalyptus; and in Jewish quarters is was rosewater. Words commonly used to describe the overall quality of barbershop scents include aromatic, fresh, clean, and classy.

Some shaving product experts, including those who viewed the above poll results, divide current barbershops scents in general into two categories, powder and Pinaud.

Powdery Product Brands:

Chiseled Face Ghost Town Barber
Lather & Wood Barber Shop
Maggard's London Barber Shop
Mama Bear's Ye Olde Barbershop
Phoenix Artisan Accoutrements Clubguy
Wet Shaving Products Barbershop
Wet the Face Barbershop

Clubman-like Product Brands:

Clubman Shave Soap
Mike's Natural Soaps Barber Shop
PAA CaD (CK6 Formula)
PAA Good Vibrations (aka Boardwalk Barbershop)
Soap Commander Honor
Soap Smooth Barbershop

Other modern scents frequently noted to represent the barbershop experience in general are:

Barrister & Mann Seville
Catie's Bubbles Tonsorial Parlour
RazoRock New York
Dr. Jon's Classic

Classic products most often named by the public as representative include Dana Canoe, Royal Copenhagen, Brut, Shulton Old Spice, Paco Rabanne, and Tabac Original. In answer to a question about what would give the 'vibe' of a traditional European barbershop, the aftershave/colognes offered include 4711, English Leather, Pino Silvestre, Azzaro, and Christian Dior Eau Sauvage.



Modern Trends

Modern barbershops and salons have strayed somewhat from the original fougère and bay rum roots, reinventing the barbershop experience with use of products containing notes of sandalwood, geranium, rose, ambroxan, and white musk, typically more soapy or herbal than their predecessors. And current perfumers have taken this a step further, adding more citruses such as bergamot, orange blossom, and lemon to an attempt to give a sense of the freshness of just having been shaved. They also describe their compositions as attempts to represent the easy atmosphere of the barbershop, a place without pretensions where men can gather and relax with light conversation and stories. One example of this is Azzaro Chrome Legend, an aldehydic tea floral with a prominent green apple note; its fruity quality is somewhat amber-like, not unlike coumarin, and its notes interact in a simple, unassuming way that is consistent with the classic barbershop products.



Consensus



The current 'general consensus' men's barbershop fragrances include:

Acqua di Parma Colonia
Antiga Barbearia de Bairro Principe Real, ABdB Ribeira do Porto
Aqua Velva
Avon Wild Country (and var. others)
Azzaro
Boucheron Jaipur
British Sterling
Burberry Classic
Calvin Klein Eternity
Carolina Herrera Privé
Caron Le 3 Homme
Cerruti 1881
Chanel Bleu de Chanel, Chanel Égoïste Platinum
Christian Dior Eau Sauvage
Claus Porto Musgo Real
Comme des Garcons Dover Street Market
Codty Musk
Dana Canoe
Davidoff Cool Water
DS & Durga Burning Barbershop
English Leather
Fabergé Brut
Francis Kurkdjian Pluriel
Geo. F. Trumper Sandalwood, GFT Spanich Leather
Geoffrey Beene Grey Flannel
Guerlain Vetiver
Guy Laroche Drakkar Noir
Halston Z-14
Helmut Lang
Hermès Eau d'Hermès, Hermès Equipage
Houbigant Fougère Royale
Hugo Boss Bottle Night, HB Hugo
Jade East Swank
Jean Paul Gaultier Le Male
John Varvatos Vintage
Lucky Tiger
Martin Margiela At the Barber's
Maurer & Wirtz Tabac
Mennen Skin Bracer
O'Doud's Natural
Ogallala Bay Rum
Paco Rabanne
Penhaligon's English Fern, Pen's Sartorial
Pinaud Clubman, PC Citrus Musk, PC Lilac Vegetal
Pino Silvestre
Prada Amber
Ralph Lauren Polo
Royal Copenhagen
Shulton Old Spice Original
Taylor of Old Bond Street Sandalwood, TOBS Shaving Shop
Tom Ford Grey Vetiver
Truefitt & Hill Grafton
Yves St. Laurent Rive Gauche

John, thanks for another great post. Now, being a big bay rum enthusiast I was pleased to see it mentioned at all,  however, I think it is giving bay rum short shrift to simply lump it in under the barbershop category. While there is no doubt that bay rum, despite its origins among seafaring men, did find its way into American barbershops, it does bay rum  a disservice  to merely dismiss it as a barbershop scent. I believe bay rum is a category unto itself. Maybe I’ve been inhaling too many bay rum fumes but that is my opinion nonetheless. It seems I may have to defend bay rum’s honour in the bay rum thread. I’d best hit the books. Or keyboard if I am to do it justice.

John, thanks for another great post. Now, being a big bay rum enthusiast I was pleased to see it mentioned at all,  however, I think it is giving bay rum short shrift to simply lump it in under the barbershop category. While there is no doubt that bay rum, despite its origins among seafaring men, did find its way into American barbershops, it does bay rum  a disservice  to merely dismiss it as a barbershop scent. I believe bay rum is a category unto itself. Maybe I’ve been inhaling too many bay rum fumes but that is my opinion nonetheless. It seems I may have to defend bay rum’s honour in the bay rum thread. I’d best hit the books. Or keyboard if I am to do it justice.

Thanks for the note. As with fougere, I actually didn't lump bay rum 'just' under the barbershop category, although it has a role there. I posted about it by itself in this thread on 12/11/2017 (post #55).

John, thanks for another great post. Now, being a big bay rum enthusiast I was pleased to see it mentioned at all,  however, I think it is giving bay rum short shrift to simply lump it in under the barbershop category. While there is no doubt that bay rum, despite its origins among seafaring men, did find its way into American barbershops, it does bay rum  a disservice  to merely dismiss it as a barbershop scent. I believe bay rum is a category unto itself. Maybe I’ve been inhaling too many bay rum fumes but that is my opinion nonetheless. It seems I may have to defend bay rum’s honour in the bay rum thread. I’d best hit the books. Or keyboard if I am to do it justice.

Thanks for the note. As with fougere, I actually didn't lump bay rum 'just' under the barbershop category, although it has a role there. I posted about it by itself in this thread on 12/11/2017 (post #55).

Thanks for the reference. I thought that you had but couldn’t recall when. Lots of great information here and it can sometimes be difficult to find things. I also thought that the fougere people could stick up for themselves